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Introduction: The Testing Framework for Nasal Drug Products Nasal sprays are a clinically important and commercially significant dosage form delivering active pharmaceutical ingredients directly to the nasal mucosa for local effects (treating allergic rhinitis, nasal congestion, sinusitis) and systemic absorption (delivering drugs via the highly vascularized nasal epithelium, bypassing first-pass hepatic metabolism)

FIGURE 1 Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor/Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase Signal Pathway Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) belongs to silk/threonine protein kinase, mainly including extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk1/2), Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) subfamily, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase and ERK5 (Yue et al., 2019)

This suggests that this hormone can aid in glycemic control even in the absence of endogenous insulin secretion

This combination activates two distinct GH-stimulating pathways simultaneously, producing synergistic pulsatile GH release that surpasses either compound in isolation